This glossary provides teachers with definitions of key words and terms used in teaching citizenship. The glossary is easy to search and may be printed out for reference.

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

A

Active citizenship

In an educational context, citizenship learning through participation in school- or community-based activities. See also citizen and citizenship.

Under the national curriculum in England, pupils at key stages 3 and 4 engage in participative activities as part of their citizenship curriculum. Ways this might be done are given in the QCA schemes of work. Guidance is also available from organisations specialising in citizenship education.

Act of Parliament

A law passed by Parliament. Also called a statute law.

About 70 Acts of Parliament are passed each year. For important new laws, the government normally issues a consultation document, known as a Green Paper , followed by firmer proposals in the form of a White Paper . A proposed Act or statute, known as a bill, passes through several stages of debate and discussion on the principle and detail in the House of Commons and the House of Lords. If it is passed by a majority vote it then becomes law by the formal act of being signed by the Crown.

Advocacy

Giving active support or pleading a cause.

The word is used in a number of contexts. First, with reference to support of a particular cause. Secondly, in the context of someone who speaks or mediates on behalf of someone else. A trained adult, for example, may act as an advocate on behalf of someone with learning difficulties. Thirdly, the term is also used when a lawyer pleads his or her client's case in a court of law or in a tribunal. In Scotland, advocate is the usual word for barrister.

Age discrimination

Discriminating against someone because of his or her age. Sometimes this is unfair; sometimes it is justified.

Unfair age discrimination is not against the law in Britain at the moment, but it will become unlawful by December 2006. By this date, under European Union law, the government is required to make certain kinds of age discrimination in employment unlawful. The Government is launching a programme of consultation on this in 2003.

Agenda 21

The requirement for governments and local authorities to develop special policies for achieving sustainable development, with a particular emphasis on informing and consulting local people throughout.

Agenda 21 was an outcome of the 1992 UN Earth Summit in Rio, which attempted to develop a global action programme to deal with environmental and humanitarian crises and to promote sustainable development. As a result of the initiative almost all UK councils have produced Local Agenda 21 programmes.

Age of consent

The age at which a boy or girl can legally agree to sexual intercourse with a boy or man without them breaking the law.

The age of consent in England, Wales and Scotland is 16. In Northern Ireland it is 17. In 2000 the law was changed to make the age of consent for male gay relationships the same as that for heterosexual relationships. There is no age of consent that has to be reached for a woman to have a legal sexual relationship with another woman.

Age of criminal responsibility

The age at which a young person becomes capable of being charged with, and punished by the courts for, a crime.

The age of criminal responsibility in England, Wales and Northern Ireland is 10 (in Scotland it is eight). A child under the age of 10 who commits a serious offence or repeatedly breaks the law may be taken into the care of the local authority. A local authority may also obtain an order (such as an antisocial behaviour order) to control the behaviour of young people under 10.

Arrest

Taking someone into the control of the law, usually because they are suspected of having committed a crime.

A person who has been arrested by the police is entitled to certain protections. They are entitled to know the reason for their arrest, to see a solicitor, and to read a copy of the Codes of Practice explaining the procedures the police must follow when questioning suspects.

Asylum

Obtaining safety in another country when a person is being persecuted in their home country because of their race, religion, nationality, political opinion or membership of a particular social group.

When a person seeks asylum they are asking to be officially recognised in that country as a refugee. If they are successful they will be allowed to stay on as a resident, either temporarily or permanently. If not, they will be deported.

Asylum seeker

A person who moves from one country to another, in search of protection, and who lodges a claim for asylum as a refugee.

In order to achieve refugee status in the UK, an asylum seeker must be able to convince immigration officials (or a tribunal) that their situation is that of a refugee, under the terms of the 1951 Geneva Convention. This defines a refugee as someone who has 'a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or opinion, is outside the country of his nationality, and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country...'.. Those people who seek asylum after entering a country hoping to earn a better living for themselves and their family, do not fit the definition of a refugee.

Authority

The legal power or right for a person or body to act in a particular way or to require others to do so. Also used to describe a public body with governmental or other public functions to regulate the activities and behaviour of others, such as the Advertising Standards Authority, the Financial Services Authority or the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority.

Autocracy

A form of government in which absolute power lies with a single individual. Also called dictatorship. Autocracies are often disguised by the addition of some appearances of democracy.

In recent times, the term has been applied to the regimes in Myanmar (formerly Burma), Iraq, Sudan, Zimbabwe and a number of countries in both the Middle East and north Africa.

B

Bill
The name given to a draft Act of Parliament, which must pass through all the necessary stages in Parliament before it becomes law.

By-law

A rule laid down by a local council or public authority that carries the full force of the law. By-law is a term of Scandinavian origin, derived from the word by, meaning town.

Local councils commonly make by-laws concerning the employment of children, parking restrictions or access to public land like parks or swimming pools. By-laws made by public authorities, such as Network Rail or Transport for London, cover matters relating to the public's behaviour on their property, for example car parking, smoking, access and charging.

C

Censorship

The control of what can be said, written or published. This can be to protect society - for example not showing sex or violence on TV before 9.00pm - but has also been used by governments or faith groups to prevent opposite points of view being raised. People or groups with informal power may also impose forms of censorship on their members or followers.

Charity

An organisation set up to provide help or assistance to those in need. In the UK a charity must be registered with the Charity Commission if it is to receive certain benefits.

In order to qualify for charitable status, an organisation must have one or more of the following aims:

• to relieve the poor, sick, handicapped or aged
• to advance education
• to advance religion
• to provide benefit for the community.

Generally speaking, charities must work to help the public as a whole, and not small groups or individual people. Under present rules charities must not carry out political activities or campaigns.

Citizen

The word is used in a number of ways. First, it refers to any individual with whatever rights and responsibilities they have where they are living; secondly, it describes an inhabitant of a city or town; and thirdly, it refers to the legal status of people who are native born or have been naturalised in a particular state or nation.

Citizenship

A legal definition of citizenship refers to membership of a state or national community, based on formal criteria such as residence, birthplace or family ties. Within an inclusive society, however, and in the current educational setting, citizenship is seen in much broader terms and includes a number of further elements.

The first of these is that citizenship carries with it certain social and moral rights and responsibilities, for individuals and institutions alike. It also contains elements of participation - the broader concept of citizenship can have little meaning if people do not support each other through participation in social, legal and political institutions, and through various types of voluntary groups and organisations.

The notion of community is also contained within this wider definition of citizenship, carrying with it a sense of shared values and belonging.

Finally, citizenship implies notions of legal, moral and political literacy, without which citizens are placed at a distinct disadvantage in terms of controlling their lives, participating and engaging with others.

Citizenship (the national curriculum subject) or Citizenship education

A national curriculum subject in England, which became a statutory part of the curriculum for pupils at key stages 3 and 4 in August 2002. It remains non-statutory for children at key stages 1 and 2.

The subject is designed to help pupils develop the knowledge, skills and understanding to become informed, active and responsible members of their community.

Programmes of study and schemes of work are published by QCA offering guidance to teachers on ways of teaching citizenship as a discrete subject, through other subjects, and through wider curriculum activities. Further details are available from QCA () and the Department for Education and Skills .

Civil liberties

Civil and political rights (many of which are also now called human rights), such as the right to liberty, the right to freedom of conscience, expression and religion, and the right to form political parties or vote in elections.

Civil law

The part of our common or statute law that is designed to regulate relationships and settle disagreements between individuals or groups of people where the state or government is not directly involved.

Civil law covers matters such as marriage, divorce, employment and consumer complaints - where the letter or mechanism of the law is used to settle a dispute or alter a legal relationship. This is in contrast to criminal law,
which is concerned with actions that are public offences and which are investigated by the police or other bodies such as trading standards officers or the Health and Safety Inspectorate.

Some cases, such as a car accident, can involve both civil and criminal law, when compensation may be claimed for an injury (civil law) and the driver may be prosecuted for dangerous driving (criminal law).

Common law

Law developed by judges, rather than through Acts of Parliament or statute law.

Prior to the Norman Conquest in 1066, there was no single national legal system in England and Wales. Disputes were settled within smaller kingdoms through custom and tradition. In order to establish a central authority, King Henry II (1154-89) appointed judges to travel around the country dealing with disputes and providing justice. The decisions made by these judges were written down and applied in a uniform, or common, way.

Since then, the law has continued to be developed by judges through what is known as the doctrine of precedent. When a judge hears a case in court, lawyers tell the judge about any other cases where similar facts have already been heard. If they have, the judge will follow the decision established by senior or equal-ranking judges in the earlier case.

However, if the most senior judges (sitting in court in the House of Lords) believe that decisions made in the past do not fit in with present-day thinking, they may reinterpret and change judge-made law in line with this.

Commonwealth

Today generally used as a shorthand term to refer to the Commonwealth of Nations that developed in the 20th century as the former colonies in the British Empire achieved self-government and became independent. In a
similar way, the word was used more recently in the phrase Commonwealth of Independent States, describing the former republics of the USSR.

The term is believed to be derived from the Greek word oikemene, meaning living together, and has been used in the past by writers to refer to their ideal state.

The British Commonwealth is the second largest international association, after the United Nations. It has a membership of 54 states, which together contain 1.7 billion people - 30 per cent of the world's population - but relatively little formal structure or administration. Amongst its priorities are the development of democracy and good governance, consensus-building and the eradication of poverty.

Community

A term used to refer to a group of people sharing certain values or having certain conditions in common, describing, for example, people living in the same locality, or those with shared cultural, religious or other characteristics.

Sometimes, however, the strength of this commonality may be over-estimated. References to the gay community or the community of a particular ethnic or faith group imply that members - or at least those with these shared characteristics - hold broadly similar views. Judgements of this kind may be misplaced, ascribing to groups and individuals characteristics that they do not necessarily have.

Constitution

A set of principles on which a state is governed, setting out the fundamental rights and duties of individual citizens, and the powers and duties of the public authorities.

In most states these relationships are set out in a formal written constitution, such as the Constitution of the United States of America, written in 1787. A notable exception to this, however, is the UK, which has an unwritten - as opposed to a written - constitution.

The constitution of the UK is found in a number of sources, ie statute law, case law, custom and convention. By comparison with the constitutions of other states, that of the UK is more flexible and more open to change by Act of Parliament.

Some observers note that the Human Rights Act 1998, which came into force in October 2000, bears some of the hallmarks of a written constitution, by guaranteeing citizens in the UK certain fundamental human rights in the way they are treated by the state.

Consumer

A private individual buying goods and services for his or her own use, rather than in the course of business.

Controversial issue

A question or topic where there are genuinely held opposing views, and that is the subject of public argument or debate. Foxhunting, abortion and the 2003 war in Iraq are all examples of this.

County court

A local court dealing with a wide range of civil law disputes. Most cases are brought by people trying to recover debts or money owed as part of a contract. However, county courts also handle cases involving personal injury compensation claims, family matters, divorce, and discrimination not connected with employment.

Court of Appeal

A senior court whose judges hear appeals against the judgement of the first court in both civil and criminal cases.

The Civil Division hears appeals against decisions made by the High Court and county courts, and against decisions made by tribunals, such as the Employment Appeal and Immigration Appeal Tribunals.

The Criminal Division deals with appeals from the Crown Court, against both conviction and sentencing.

In most cases, the Court of Appeal is the court of last resort. However, where an issue of public importance is involved its decisions can be appealed to the Judicial Committee of the House of Lords, which is currently the final appeal court in the English legal system, although it is proposed that this should be replaced with a Supreme Court.

Some matters of European law can be sent by the courts in England to the European Court, whose rulings are binding on all our courts.

Criminal justice system

A general term referring to the various authorities involved in the investigation of crime and the legal proceedings and punishments that follow.

The criminal justice system includes the police, the Crown Prosecution Service, the courts, the judiciary and all those official bodies, such as the Probation and Prison Services and Youth Offending Teams, involved in the treatment of offenders. It is administered generally in England and Wales by a combination of the Home Office and the Department for Constitutional Affairs, formerly the Lord Chancellor's Department.

Crime

Behaviour that the state has decided must be discouraged or prevented - such as murder, assault or theft. An action deemed by law to be a public wrong. Crimes are usually dealt with by the police, or some other authority, and not by the individuals concerned.

The nature of crime may vary over time. Actions that were once crimes in Britain, but are no longer, include suicide (1961), abortion (1967), homosexuality between men (1967) and the opening of certain shops on Sundays (1994). Actions that were not offences in Britain, but now are, include failing to wear a crash helmet while riding a motorcycle (1973), inciting racial hatred (1986) and the sale of fireworks to anyone under 18 (1997).

Criminal

A person charged with and convicted in court of a crime.

Criminal law

That part of our common and statute law covering behaviour that the state has designated a crime.

Criminal law covers offences such as murder, theft, assault, offences involving firearms and other weapons, crimes against public order, crimes against state security, road traffic offences, false trade descriptions and food and drug offences.

Critical thinking

An approach to the investigation of issues characterised by the use of a number of skills and qualities. Skills of critical thinking include the ability:

• to interpret information methodically and rationally
• to acknowledge and identify different possible interpretations of the same or similar information
• to assess or evaluate the credibility of the data and, on the basis of this, to be able to infer or draw reasonable conclusions.

Other characteristics of critical thinking include:

• an ordered and diligent approach to the investigation
• clarity in identifying the question
• an inquisitiveness applied to a wide range of issues so that commonly accepted views and beliefs are tested and challenged.

This approach to issues and problems is generally seen to be particularly relevant for citizenship education. Critical thinking is now offered as an examination at A/S level.

Crown Court

A court that hears the prosecution of more serious crimes. Cases are presided over by a judge, and the verdict is reached by a jury.

Crown Courts are found in many major towns and cities in England and Wales. They can sit at any centre in England and Wales, as designated by the Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs and by the Lord Chancellor.

D

Debate

A formal discussion in which opposing arguments are considered and discussed. In some circumstances it may take the form of the presentation of and opposition to a formal motion, followed by a vote.

Democracy

The term is derived from two Greek words: demos, meaning people, and kratos, strength. Today, dictionaries invariably define the word in relation to 'rule or government by the people'.

However, the use of the word in this very general sense begs a number of questions:

• Exactly what do we mean by 'the people'?
• How directly involved in government should they, and can they, be?
• Over what matters should 'the people' be consulted, and how requently?
• How should minorities or people with opposing views be treated?

In order to answer some of the points raised by these questions, democracy is ften prefaced or qualified with another term, such as direct or popular emocracy, representative democracy or liberal democracy.

Direct democracy refers to circumstances where citizens participate directly in taking decisions or making laws. This coincides most closely with how classical Greek democracy is understood to have functioned. Probably the closest governing arrangement to this today is where decisions are taken by a referendum. In the UK these are very rare.

One very obvious drawback of direct democracy is that shared decision taking of this kind can only be effective within a relatively small society. Textbooks suggest that the system only worked in Ancient Greece because the male citizens of a city rarely numbered more than 20,000 (women and slaves could not vote), and not all took up their rights to participate.

Representative democracy is a form of democracy in which citizens rule through representatives, for example local councillors, MPs, MEPs and AMs (Assembly Members), who are chosen in periodic elections. There is a lot of debate about which form of voting system provides the fairest or most effective form of representation.

Liberal democracy is a form of representative democracy working in an environment that is committed to respect civil and human natural rights by only interfering with individual choice or conduct when necessary. It is this form of government that most developed nations claim to practise, and also the form of government that allows free-market capitalism to operate most effectively.

Characteristics of representative and liberal democracy include:

• regular and free elections
• secret ballots
• universal franchise
• permitted and effective political opposition entitled to contest elections
• regard for individual and minority rights
• constitutional mechanisms designed to limit governmental power
• tolerance of criticism and a free media.

Dictatorship

A form of government that is not in practice restricted by laws or by a constitution, and where the ruler and his or her followers have absolute power. Examples of modern dictators include Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, Josef Stalin, Pol Pot and Saddam Hussein.

The term dictator originated at the time of Ancient Rome to describe a person temporarily appointed to a position of power at times of crisis.

E

Election

The process of choosing between a number of candidates, by vote, for a particular post or office.

Elections for local councillors in Britain are held every four years, usually during the first week of May. General elections to Parliament must take place at least every five years. If an MP dies or resigns, a by-election takes place to elect a new MP to that constituency. Elections to the European Parliament take place every five years.

Euro

The name of the new currency adopted by 12 of the current 15 members of the European Union.

Introduced on 1 January 2002, after a two-year transition period, the euro (€) has been the sole legal tender in the 12 participating countries since 28 February 2002.

For the time being at least, Britain, Denmark and Sweden have decided not to adopt the euro as their currency. Denmark has held two national referendums on joining the euro and the idea was rejected on both occasions. The governments of Britain and Sweden have each undertaken to hold a referendum on the issue. In Britain's case it has been promised for when the government believes that its own five convergence criteria have been met.

European Convention on Human Rights

An international agreement drawn up shortly after the end of the Second World War to prevent the abuse of people's basic human rights by governments and other public authorities. It took effect in 1953, and sets out fundamental rights and freedoms that everyone should have, as well as the limited circumstances in which the state may interfere with those freedoms.

The main rights listed include the right to life, prohibition from torture, the right to liberty, the right to a fair trial, freedom of thought, conscience and religion, freedom of expression, freedom of assembly and the right to free elections.

In 1998, Parliament passed the Human Rights Act, which incorporated almost all the rights in the European Convention into UK law. Anyone who believes that the courts in the UK have not dealt fairly with their Convention rights may take their case to the European Court of Human Rights.

European Court of Human Rights

The court that hears cases in which it is claimed there has been a breach of the European Convention on Human Rights. The Court sits in Strasbourg in northeastern France.

A case may be brought to the Court by individuals, groups or one state against another, but not before all domestic legal remedies have been exhausted. A panel of three judges decides whether each application is admissible and, if it is, a chamber of seven judges then normally hears the case. Under the European Convention on Human Rights, the UK accepted that the decision of these judges is binding, and this has resulted in a number of instances where UK law has had to be changed in order to ensure that the European Convention on Human Rights is not broken in a similar way again.

In 1982, the mothers of two pupils in Scotland argued that UK law allowing corporal punishment in schools was in breach of the European Convention on Human Rights. The Court agreed and, largely as a result of this decision, corporal punishment was eventually abolished in UK schools.

European Parliament

The directly elected body exercising control over the operation of the European Union. It consists of 626 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs), who are directly elected every five years by citizens of the European Union member states. The official seat of the Parliament is Strasbourg, but its committees meet in Brussels and administrative departments are divided between Brussels and Luxembourg.

The powers of the European Parliament have grown significantly since it was established in 1952. Today it is able, with the Council of Ministers, to decide on EU law, to control more than 50 per cent of the EU budget, and to watch over the general administration of the European Union.

European Union

An organisation (currently) of 15 member states that seeks to create a single market in which goods, services, people and money can move freely between member states.

The origins of the EU go back to an agreement signed between France, Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany in 1951, through which the coal and steel production of all six countries came under a single European authority. The EU was initially known as the European Coal and Steel Community. The UK applied for membership in 1961 and 1967 without success, achieving admission at the third attempt in 1972.

Membership of the EU will increase further in 2004, with the admission of Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia.

F

Fair trade

In economics, fair trade is traditionally defined as a policy under which countries trade with each other on the same terms and conditions - in other words, trade that operates under similar concessions or restrictions so that it is 'fair' to both sides.

However, today the term is commonly used to refer to measures that can be taken to combat the disadvantages in trading conditions that producers, particularly in the southern hemisphere, face compared with those in the north and in more economically developed countries.

Fair trade aims to respect the producers (mainly in poorer areas of the world) as much as the consumers (mainly in the richer areas of the world). It does this by attempting to ensure that producers are paid fair prices and have greater economic security through decent working conditions and, where possible, involvement in the ownership and management of their businesses.

Fair trade promotes economic activity that minimises damage to the environment and respects the fundamental rights of all workers and indigenous people.

First past the post

The voting system in which people each cast one vote, and the winning candidate is the person with the most votes. This is the system currently used for general and by-elections throughout the UK for the Parliament in Westminster.

G

Globalisation

The process by which business, politics and culture operate on a world scale, no longer confined to single countries or continents.

Government

A general term referring to the body or group of people exercising rule or control over a particular area, on a local, regional, or national basis.

Written with a capital letter, Government refers to the current ruling group. In lower case, it can be used to describe particular forms of government, such a democratic or totalitarian, or to a policy making body in general, ie local or national government.

Green Paper

A consultation document, published by the government, with some general suggestions for ways in which the law may be changed or new laws introduced.

A Green Paper is followed by a White Paper with firmer proposals, which becomes the basis of a bill debated by Parliament - although not all bills are preceded by Green and White Papers.

H

High Court

The civil court that first hears the most serious cases in England. It is divided into three divisions - Chancery, Queen's Bench and Family - covering a wide variety of subjects, such as company law, compensation for people injured or killed in accidents, and questions of family law and divorce. The full name of the court is the High Court of Justice.

Holocaust

A great destruction or loss of life.

The word is usually used to describe the killing of between 6 and 7 million Jewish people during the Second World War. The slaughter of a large part of the Jewish population of Germany, Poland, Austria, the Netherlands, Czechoslovakia, Greece and the Baltic States was part of what the Nazis termed the Final Solution - the removal and destruction of non-Aryan groups. Other victims of this mass killing included opponents of the Nazis (such as the Communists), Jehovah's Witnesses, gypsies, homosexuals and convicted criminals. Of all these groups it was the Jews who suffered the greatest losses.

House of Commons

The section of Parliament made up of elected MPs.

The House of Commons consists of 659 MPs, each representing a different constituency in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. Virtually all MPs belong to and represent a political party. Occasionally, a candidate for election is not a member of political party, but an individual standing in their own right. In the 2001 General Election, for example, Dr Richard Taylor became MP for the Wyre Forest constituency, basing his campaign entirely on the proposed downgrading of a local hospital.

Although sometimes described as the Lower House, the House of Commons is the UK's main political assembly, working through many committees and meetings of all its members.

It carries out four important roles:

• to represent the interests of constituents, political parties and other groups
• to approve, amend or reject the government's proposals for new laws
• to check and examine the government's actions and policies
• to provide a forum for debate on issues of national importance.

House of Lords

That section of Parliament consisting mainly of people who have been specially appointed as peers, whose appointment is for life. The members also include a small number of hereditary peers and leading bishops.

The main purpose of the House of Lords is to examine new laws that are proposed in the House of Commons, and to suggest any changes that the Lords think should be made. In doing this, the Lords are able to delay - but not actually prevent - the passage of new legislation. However, as a protection against power being seized by a dictator, they do have the right to veto any bill that prolongs the life of Parliament beyond the statutory five-year period.)

In 1999, membership of the House of Lords underwent considerable reform, with the reduction of the number of hereditary peers from 765 to 92. It is likely that further reforms will take place in the future in an attempt to make the membership of the House of Lords more representative of the population of the nation as a whole.

The House of Lords also acts as the final Court of Appeal for the UK in civil cases of law, and for England, Wales and Northern Ireland in criminal cases. This work is carried out by 12 senior judges, known as law lords, who are also life peers.

Houses of Parliament

The House of Commons and the House of Lords are the two Houses of Parliament, located on the north side of the River Thames in the centre of London. The correct name for the building in which they are housed is the Palace of Westminster.

Human rights

Rights and freedoms to which every human being is entitled.

Despite this simple definition, there is considerable discussion about exactly what these rights should be. There are several international agreements listing essential human rights, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the European Convention on Human Rights and the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.

Although differing in detail, each of these documents addresses the fundamental rights and freedoms that should be given to the individual by the state. They are not always legally binding unless the state chooses to make them so.

In 1998, Parliament passed the Human Rights Act, making almost all of the European Convention on Human Rights part of UK law. The Act came into effect in October 2000.

L

Legal framework

The people, processes and institutions concerned with the implementation of law and the administration of justice. The term can also refer to the group of relevant laws that affect the way in which particular behaviour is regulated or activities are controlled.

Lobbying

Attempting to influence decision-makers or legislators to support a particular position.

The term lobby is also used in the UK to describe the small group of journalists who are given confidential information by government ministers and aides on the understanding that they will release the information to the public in a discreet way, without revealing their sources of information.

Local authority

Another name for the local or county council, or the metropolitan or borough council, whose responsibility includes the local provision of education, transport, planning controls, environmental protection, refuse collection, housing and social services.

M

Magistrate

Magistrates, or Justices of the Peace as they are sometimes known, are members of the local community who work in court as magistrates on a part- time basis, on average two or three days a month. They normally hear cases in threes. They do not need to have any legal or academic qualifications, but do receive training, and they are unpaid, except for expenses.

Magistrates handle almost 95 per cent of criminal cases. Their job is to consider the evidence in each case. In more serious cases they will send the defendant to the Crown Court to be tried by a judge and jury. In other cases they reach a verdict themselves. If the defendant admits guilt or is found guilty, the magistrate will decide on an appropriate sentence.

Magistrates' court

A local court that hears mainly criminal cases, but also deals with some matters of civil law.

All criminal cases are first brought to a magistrates' court, where most are dealt with. If the accused is aged 17 or under, the case will normally be heard in a youth court. The more serious offences are passed onto the Crown Court if the magistrates are satisfied that there is a reasonable case against the accused.

Morality

A system of moral principles covering what people believe is fundamentally right or wrong.

P

Parliament

The law-making body of the United Kingdom, consisting of the House of Commons, the House of Lords and the Crown. For a more detailed glossary on Parliament please see BBC A-Z of Parliament.

Politics

The process dealing with resolving the differences in resources, values and objectives that exist between different human groups.

It involves, in particular, deciding how and how far government should regulate the affairs of a country, the activities of the people living there, and its relations with other countries or groups of countries.

Political literacy

Possession of the skills, knowledge and understanding that enable someone to take an interest and become involved in political events, institutions, problems and ideas.

Political party

An organised group of people sharing similar political views and aiming to win political power in a country or region, usually through elections.

Pressure group

A group of people or a voluntary organisation formed to defend a particular interest or to campaign for change and influence official policy.

Examples of pressure groups include:

• motoring organisations and trade unions defending or promoting the interests of motorists and employees respectively
• conservation groups defending or protecting particular locations or species of animal or plant
• groups that may be relatively short-lived, formed to protest against a particular issue, for example a planning proposal or a decision to go to war.

Proportional representation

A method of election that allocates seats in a parliament or assembly in proportion to the number of votes recorded. This is in contrast to the first-past-the-post system, which may result in political representation failing to reflect fairly the balance of votes recorded.

There are several forms of proportional representation. One of these is the list system, in which people vote for a party, rather than individual candidates. When the votes are added up each party gets the number of seats equal to its share of the vote. The party itself then decides which individuals will fill those seats.

Under the additional member system, electors have two votes - one for the person they want to be their constituency representative, and the other for their political party of choice. Their constituency representative is the person receiving most votes. The second votes are used to measure the level of party support across all the constituencies, and a number of further seats are awarded to party representatives in such a way as to reflect each party's share of the vote.

Under the single transferable vote, ballot papers indicate the number of seats available in each constituency and the names of those standing for election. Electors number the candidates in order of preference. The process of
counting uses (or transfers) people's second, third and fourth choices to determine who are the most popular candidates overall - and it is on this basis that seats are allocated.

The list system was used for the European elections in 1999. Elections in Germany and those for the Welsh Assembly and Scottish Parliament use the additional member system. Parliamentary elections for the Republic of Ireland are held under a single transferable vote.

Prosecute

To bring a criminal case against someone in court.

R

Race

A form of classification distinguishing and categorising groups of people by a combination of certain physical features, such as skin colour, hair type, facial features and stature.

Racism

The belief that certain races, ethnic groups or nationalities have particular qualities that mark them out as being superior or inferior to others. The term is also used to describe abusive or aggressive behaviour towards someone of a different race, ethnic group or nationality that stems from such a belief or from a stereotypical or prejudiced view.

Referendum

The process of putting an important question, or set of questions, to the direct vote of the people as a whole, rather than allowing the matter to be decided by their representatives.

Referendums have recently been held in a number of areas of the UK in order to decide whether towns and cities should be able to elect their own mayor. In 1997, a referendum was held in Scotland over the question of devolution, and in 1998, the people of Wales voted on the question of creating a separate national assembly.

Referendums have also been used to decide on questions of morality, over which a government might be divided. In Ireland in 1995, just over 50 per cent of voters decided in favour of lifting the ban on divorce introduced in 1937. In 2002, voters in Ireland narrowly rejected a proposal by the government to change the law on abortion.

Refugee

Under the terms of the 1951 Geneva Convention, a refugee is defined as someone who, because of 'a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or opinion, is outside the country of his nationality, and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country…'.

Anyone who qualifies for refugee status under this definition is entitled to receive either temporary or permanent residential status in the country in which they have lodged their application. The Convention has been signed by more than 130 countries, including the UK. A person waiting for their application for refugee status to be decided upon is known as an asylum seeker.

Responsibilities

Obligations or matters over which a person is considered to have a legal or moral duty.

Rights

Claims, privileges or entitlements, normally protected by law.

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