The importance of English to pupils with learning difficulties

Learning English encompasses all aspects of communication - non-verbal, verbal and written. Work in English promotes learning across the curriculum and underpins pupils' achievements and participation in all aspects of their lives.

In particular, English offers pupils with learning difficulties opportunities to:

• develop the ability to respond, to listen and to understand
• interact and communicate effectively with others in a range of social situations
• make choices, obtain information, question and be actively involved in decision making
• develop creativity and imagination
• have access to a wide range of literature to enrich and broaden their experience.

In response to these opportunities, pupils can make progress in English by:

• using a wide variety of activities, which are age-related, especially where aspects of the programmes of study are revisited at later key stages
• increasing engagement in, and the quality of, a range of literature and communication activities
• a widening of horizons and participation from the immediate social circles of family and school, to an extended participation in the local and wider community
• adapting to different circumstances and contexts with independence and confidence
• acquiring an increasing range of vocabulary, from the names of everyday objects, events and people, to vocabulary used across the curriculum and related to the wider community.

Modifying the English programmes of study

The statutory inclusion statement of the National Curriculum requires staff to modify the programmes of study to give all pupils relevant and appropriately challenging work at each key stage. Staff should teach knowledge, skills and understanding in ways that match and challenge their pupils' abilities.

Staff can modify the English programmes of study for pupils with learning difficulties by:

• choosing material from earlier key stages
• aiming to maintain, reinforce, consolidate and generalise, as well as introduce new knowledge, skills and understanding
• using the programmes of study as a resource, or to provide a context, in planning learning appropriate to the age and needs of pupils
• focusing on one aspect, or a limited number of aspects, of the age-related programmes of study.

The National Curriculum emphasises the importance of interrelating speaking and listening, reading and writing and of providing an integrated curriculum. The direct teaching of speaking and listening, reading and writing skills is also important for all pupils.

This guidance complements the English National Curriculum programmes of study and the work of the National Literacy Strategy (NLS). It also draws on the curriculum guidance for the foundation stage and the early learning goals for communication, language and literacy. The NLS objectives of the Framework for teaching can be used to support planning.

Staff working with pupils at key stage 3 should make reference to the NLS Framework for teaching English in years 7, 8 and 9. These materials, together with the National Curriculum breadth of study, provide the context for coverage and the development of skills at an appropriate level for each pupil.

Speaking and listening

In the broadest interpretation, speaking and listening encompass all forms of communicative responses and intent. Communication may include one or more of the following:

• the use of body movements, for example, whole body movements (such as turning towards or away), eye gaze, facial expressions (such as smiling or grimacing), and pointing using eye, head, foot, fists or fingers
• gestures, for example, clapping, waving and reaching, and formalised signs
• communication aids, for example, objects of reference, photographs, pictures, symbols and electronic communicators
• vocalisation and speech.

Staff working with pupils at different key stages may find it helpful to refer to the QCA publication Teaching speaking and listening at key stages 1 and 2 for suggestions about ways to develop skills in all aspects of this programme of study. In addition, the NLSkey stage 3 framework for year 7 contains ideas about teaching drama and work in role, all of which may be freely adapted for a range of pupils.

Speaking

To encourage pupils to express their likes, dislikes, feelings, emotions and preferences for different audiences, it is important to develop vocalisation, whether spontaneous or imitative, and/or the use of a range of communicative movements and gestures. Teaching this aspect across key stages may help pupils to:

• participate in social routines and to communicate in a widening range of situations
• develop oral motor skills to support the development of speech, for example, blowing, sucking, licking and humming
• produce sequences of intonated sounds and words
• use a widening range of vocabulary
• use an appropriate form of communication for a range of purposes, for example, to request, instruct, question, share information, organise actions and thoughts
• vary the tone and volume of their voices in different situations and then monitor their use of volume, tone and pitch
• use appropriate facial expressions.

Listening and responding

It is important to develop the ability to attend, listen and discriminate between contrasting stimuli, for example, auditory, visual, tactile and olfactory. Teaching this aspect across key stages may help pupils to:

• listen and develop auditory memory, for example, responding to sounds in the environment or to the cessation of sound, attending to adult imitation of their own sounds, responding to their own name, imitation and turn-taking activities, responding appropriately to specific sounds, words and phrases and exploring language in different contexts
• maintain and develop concentration, for example, focusing on an activity, tracking a sound or movement, copying sequences of sounds, listening and attending to rhymes, stories and simple recounts linked to sensory cues, sustaining attention in different activities, and responding to instructions.

Group discussion and interaction

It is important to develop the ability to respond to the communication of others and to develop joint attention in both one-to-one and group situations. Teaching this aspect across key stages may help pupils to:

• take turns in a range of situations and for a variety of purposes, for example, cooperating with others in a shared task, actively contributing to interactions, and maintaining interaction through more than one turn
• initiate communication, for example, through smiling, making eye contact, reaching out, touching, or drawing attention to an object or event of interest.

Drama

Drama provides a rich and motivating stimulus to develop a wide range of speaking and listening skills in novel, exciting and real-life situations, including involvement in the community. Teaching this aspect across key stages may help pupils to develop:

• a sense of self and of their role in different social groups
• anticipation and recall
• listening, concentration and attention skills
• the ability to choose, justify and discriminate between decisions
• the confidence to experiment and try new ideas where there is no right or wrong answer
• cooperation, tolerance and willingness to work with others
• self-discipline and self-confidence and involvement in the community.

Standard Engligh and language variation

Pupils with learning difficulties may need to have expressive language modelled for them. They may need structured support to understand and use the different elements in speech and to progress from the use of single words to two or more elements. Support may include the use and understanding of how other parts of speech, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, prepositions, are used and combined in different ways so that the meaning is clear. Listening to, and being aware of how colloquial English and local spoken dialect can differ from standard English is important, even for pupils who may not develop speech. Pupils may be taught about how language varies and may experience varieties of expressive language associated with different situations. Teaching this aspect across key stages may help pupils to:

• use different facial expressions and body posture in formal and informal situations
• use appropriate structures to refer to the present, for example, two to three element combinations, including statements, negatives, questions, commands or the use of adjectives, prepositions and determiners, for example, 'my coat'
• apply a familiar word to a range of others, for example, 'more gravy', 'more books'
• use a range of structures, such as plurals and pronouns and refer to activities and experiences in the past and the future
• link clauses with connectives, for example, 'and'
• be aware of differences between written forms and verbal and non-verbal communication systems
• discriminate between, and make active choices about, formal and informal vocabulary in different situations, for example, phrases on a communication aid, different tones of voice, different signs
• develop an understanding of how language varies over time, and the influences on language, for example, peer group colloquialisms, media and advertising.

Reading

For pupils with learning difficulties, reading may be interpreted as any activity that leads to the derivation of meanings from visual or tactile representations, for example, objects, pictures, symbols or written words. They may be accessed visually, aurally or through touch, for example, looking at objects, pictures, symbols or words, feeling objects of reference, looking and listening to CD-ROMs or computer programs, listening to an adult reading aloud or an audio tape.

Reading strategies

Pupils may be taught a range of strategies to enjoy, to access and to understand, different types of symbolic representations, for example, objects of reference, pictures, symbols and text or combinations of these.

Phonemic awareness and phonic knowledge

It is important to develop every pupil's ability to listen and to attend. Teaching this aspect across key stages may help pupils to:

• locate, track and sequence sounds
• sustain attention in a listening activity
• recognise that sounds and words can relate to people, situations, actions and objects
• discriminate between different sounds, words and phrases
• blend sounds for reading and segment them for spelling
• develop a knowledge of grapheme and phoneme correspondences.

Word recognition and symbolic knowledge

It is important to develop the ability to attend to objects, patterns, pictures, symbols and words. Pupils can be encouraged to link these to people, situations, objects and actions and to learn how they can provide cues to an activity and to make choices. Teaching this aspect across key stages may help pupils to:

• discriminate between different representations
• distinguish between text and illustrations
• match and identify a range of familiar representations, for example, signs, symbols and words of personal importance, high-frequency words, content words or phrases from familiar books or reading schemes, social and environmental vocabulary, cross-curricular and subject-specific vocabulary.

Grammatical awareness

Grammatical awareness will develop from, and support, pupils' ability to use and understand how the different elements of speech, for example, how nouns, verbs, adjectives and prepositions are used and combined in different ways so that meaning is clear. Reading may provide a visual prompt to support pupils who have difficulties with syntax or who use telegrammatic speech in appropriate language structures. To develop pupils' reading comprehension, it is important to develop their understanding of words, sentences and whole texts and the ways in which these are selected, combined and sequenced. Teaching this aspect across key stages may help pupils to:

• recognise patterns and continue a pattern of objects or symbols
• sequence objects, symbols and words from left to right, and understand that they need to be accessed in that way to make sense
• develop the concept of beginnings and ends, for example, of a story, an information text, a sentence or a word
• recognise when the order of an object, picture, symbol or word sequence has been changed and how such changes can alter meanings.

Contextual understanding

The development of pupils' knowledge of object permanence will support the understanding of cues and signals linked to reading activities, and the ability to consider the text as a whole. Contextual understanding will be built upon knowledge, skills and understanding developed in speaking and listening activities, for example, pupils' appropriate responses to specific sounds, words and phrases, their use and understanding of a developing vocabulary and their exploration of language used across different contexts. Teaching this aspect across key stages may help pupils to:

• become familiar with, and anticipate, routines linked to reading activities and the content of different texts, for example, through story sacks, handling objects linked to information texts, a mood created within the classroom before reading a particular type of story using lights, music, sound effects to prepare for a scary story or the opening of a book providing the cue that an adult is about to read aloud
• make connections between different parts of a text, for example, how stories begin and end, the sequence of stories, the order of a recipe, what has been included and omitted in information writing
• predict what happens next in a story or what a book might be about
• apply knowledge gained from experience of other texts.

Reading for information

It is important to develop the ability to recognise and to obtain information from objects, photographs, pictures, symbols and text. Teaching this aspect across key stages may help pupils to:

• access information from a wide variety of sources, for example, objects of reference, pictures and photographs, reference books, tables, charts, maps, diagrams, dictionaries, CD-ROMs, audio tapes, internet sites
• choose, select and handle books with care and to use a library
• understand terms about books and print and use them correctly, for example, cover, beginning, end, page, line, word, letter, title
• recognise and name different types of non-fiction and non-literary texts and understand their uses, for example, newspapers, magazines, dictionaries, cookery books, atlases, diaries, telephone directories, leaflets, letters
• identify, understand, and use subject-specific and specialist vocabularies
• use some of the organisational features of non-fiction texts to find information, for example, headings, captions, illustrations, contents, index and chapters
• identify facts and opinions and compare information from different texts.

Literature

A response to, and an understanding of, literature will initially be accessed through attending to a familiar voice reading aloud and to objects, pictures and varied sensory stimuli linked to a story. It is important to develop pupils' understanding of fiction, poetry and drama. Teaching this aspect across key stages may help pupils to:

• attend and respond to the sound, rhythm and mood of a variety of literary texts
• respond in different ways to what they have read or heard, for example, through movement, mime, role play, art, music, shared writing activities
• develop a wide understanding and use of vocabulary linked to text, supported where appropriate by objects, pictures, symbols and multi-sensory resources
• respond to, identify, and describe characters, events, settings and emotions in fiction texts
• contribute to a shared discussion, making reference to the characters and plot and indicating personal preferences
• compare the work of the same and different writers, identifying similarities and differences, for example, compare two poems by the same poet; compare two pieces of writing on the same theme, but in different styles or from different cultural traditions
• respond to, and be aware of, the different uses of language and subject matter from different traditions.

Writing

Writing may be interpreted as any activity that communicates and records events, experiences, information, thoughts and feelings. This may be in stories, scripts, poetry, personal writing or functional writing, for example, lists, instructions. Writing presents a considerable challenge for many pupils with learning difficulties. The most appropriate form of recording should be selected according to pupils' needs, for example, using objects, pictures, photographs, symbols and text; own name, picture, letter and word stamps; working with an adult as a scribe or a combination of these. All relevant ICT and communication aids should be used to support and foster writing, including composition through dictation, for example, to a tape recorder, an adult scribe or voice-activated software, and the use of computers in addition to handwriting. Technology can also be used for listening to what the pupils have written themselves or what others have written.

Composition

It is important to provide pupils with the tools to develop the skills to record information in a variety of ways. Teaching this aspect across key stages may help pupils to:

• record events, experiences and information, for example, making simple books that reflect personal interests
• link objects, pictures, words and symbols to convey meanings
• select and choose an appropriate vocabulary
• use the experience of stories, poems and simple recounts as a basis for shared and independent writing, for example, re-telling, substituting and extending
• write in different styles, for example, captions, lists, letters, address labels, action plans for progress files, application forms for work experience
• vary their writing for different purposes and different readers.

Planning and drafting

Pupils with learning difficulties may work with staff and peers on planning and drafting activities. It is important to develop the ability to select and assemble objects, photographs, pictures, symbols and words appropriate to the activity. Teaching this aspect across key stages may help pupils to:

• trace, overwrite, copy and write familiar words and phrases that have been generated in response to a starting point
• plan, note and develop initial ideas, for example, using objects, pictures or photographs as a starting point for their work; writing frames, ideas webs, lists, concept maps, network diagrams and sign-posting systems
• draft and develop ideas from a plan into a structured written text, for example, through working with an adult as a scribe, copying dictated words and text, selecting symbols, words or sentences or a combination of them on a switch-operated computer program
• revise, change and improve drafts, for example, through working individually with an adult or in a shared writing group and discussing and reviewing the written text, reading their own work aloud, underlining words that could be substituted by a more interesting vocabulary, cutting and pasting work on a word processor.

Spelling and punctuation

Work on punctuation will be supported by activities that highlight the importance of making sense of what is read and the needs of the reader. It needs to be closely allied to the development of grammatical awareness. Work on spelling will be supported by activities that highlight the similarities and differences between sounds, words and letters. The latter will need to be closely allied to phonemic awareness and phonic knowledge. Knowledge, skills and understanding should be developed as outlined in the National Curriculum programmes of study and the teaching objectives in the National Literacy Strategy Framework for Teaching.

Handwriting and presentation

It is important to provide extensive opportunities to develop pupils' awareness of, and attention to, their hands and fingers, and the ability to use them with increasing control, for example, bringing two objects together, transferring objects from hand to hand, and picking up small objects using a pincer grasp. Pupils can experiment with different media, and should be encouraged to use a range of writing materials to make marks and to develop pencil control and handwriting skills. For many pupils with learning difficulties, presentation skills will be best supported by ICT. Teaching this aspect across key stages may help pupils to:

• be aware of, attend to and manipulate switches, for example, through adult prompts and guidance, using different body parts, such as head and foot
• develop hand/eye coordination, for example, through left to right tracking activities; a range of fine motor activities; exploring patterns, circular movements and letter shapes and tracing, overwriting, copying and/or forming shapes and letters; colouring within a defined outline; developing and practising handwriting, ensuring correct letter formation, orientation and proportion
• take pride in their work
• recognise and understand how to set out their work, how to check that it is neat and clear, and how to revise it and amend mistakes.

Standard English and language structure

Standard English and language structure will develop from, and support, a pupil's ability to use and understand the different elements in speaking and listening activities, for example, how nouns, verbs, adjectives, prepositions and other parts of speech are used and combined to make meanings clear. Shared writing activities may support pupils who have difficulties with syntax or who use telegrammatic speech in appropriate language structures. It will also be closely linked to work on grammatical awareness in reading. It is important that pupils understand that pictures, symbols and written words need to be ordered correctly and that an appropriate vocabulary is crucial to meaning. Teaching this aspect across key stages may help pupils to:

• select an appropriate vocabulary
• order pictures, symbols and words and link them in sentences and sequences of sentences
• recognise the functions of different words, for example, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and use them appropriately by linking them in sentences and sequences of sentences
• be aware of how written English varies in degrees of formality, depending on the intended readers, relationships and contexts.

Improving access to the English curriculum

Staff can make English more accessible by:

• ensuring that communication opportunities are of a high quality and enjoyable, relevant and motivating
• providing access to appropriate ICT to support and develop pupils' work
• providing opportunities for pupils to communicate through the most appropriate means or by a combination of means, for example, body movements; eye gaze; facial expression; gestures including clapping, waving, pointing and signing; finger spelling; photographs; pictures and symbols; objects and objects of reference; electronic communication aids and switches
• supporting their own speech and prompting pupil responses in shared reading and writing activities and in discussion work through signs, symbols, visual prompts and through appropriate models to support pupils' responses
• encouraging interaction with other pupils, in addition to interaction with staff
• using materials and resources which pupils can access through sight, touch, sound, taste or smell, for example, tactile books, story sacks and boxes, tapes
• sensitive and thoughtful adult support, for example, correct positioning so that pupils can make purposeful movements or focus on an activity; coactive exploration; sensitive interpretation of the meaning and purpose of communication
• allowing time for pupils to settle and be familiar with their environment, and to respond and communicate, for example, to reach for, grasp or release an object, and to attempt tasks independently
• adapting equipment, tasks or environments and providing alternative activities where necessary, for example, simplified text
• an awareness of the pace at which pupils work and the physical effort required
• a balance of consistency and challenge, according to individual needs.

Pupils with hearing impairment may need:

• a greater emphasis on visual and tactile approaches
• a carefully considered environment in which listening activities can take place, for example, limited noise levels and background noise for those pupils wearing hearing aids.

Pupils with visual impairment may need:

• an emphasis on tactile and auditory cues
• activities and objects presented in particular ways, for example, with a verbal cue, within their visual range; with verbal descriptions of objects and pictures
• to know who is working within their group
• to be carefully positioned in the group, so that they can make effective use of their vision
• equipment to support access, for example, appropriate lighting, enlarged or reduced print, tactile books, materials with clear contrasts, equipment to enlarge pictures and texts, the use of objects of reference, specific alternative communication systems such as the use of 'Moon' or Braille
• a carefully considered environment in which listening takes place, as the auditory input for pupils with visual impairment will have a greater significance, and some pupils may benefit from the use of small enclosed spaces where sounds are enhanced and extraneous noise is reduced.