To improve learning and performance in education, work and life, six skill areas are embedded in the subjects of the National Curriculum. Described as key skills, these are: communication (including literacy), application of number, information technology, working with others, improving own learning and performance, and problem solving.

Communication

For pupils with learning difficulties, the key skill of communication is fundamental to participation and achievement in all curriculum areas. The key skill of communication includes:

• responding to others, for example, through facial expression or gestures
• communicating with others, for example, expressing preferences and needs
• interacting with others, for example, through mutual gaze with another or joint participation
• communicating effectively using preferred methods of communication with different groups of people, for example, one to one with a member of staff, in a small group of peers, or in a school assembly
• communicating for a variety of purposes, for example, expressing feelings, forming and maintaining friendships, describing or commenting
• communicating appropriately in different contexts, for example, the classroom, local shops, the workplace and the home
• recognising and obtaining information, for example, photographs, pictures, symbols, text, recipes for preparing food from objects
• recording and recalling information in a variety of ways, for example, through self-assessment sheets in behaviour management
• the application of emerging literacy skills, for example, recognising logos, symbols and information signs in the community.

For pupils with learning difficulties, communication takes place in a number of ways and involves all the senses. Preferred methods of communication may include the use of:

• body language, for example, turning towards or away, stiffening, relaxing
• facial expression, for example, smiling or grimacing
• eye-pointing
• objects of reference to signal events or to indicate choices
• communication aids
• photographs, pictures and symbols, for example, in a communication book
• print
• signing
• information and communication technology (ICT)
• sounds and the spoken word.

Individual needs and interest need to be taken into account. Pupils may need specific focus, input and programmes from speech and language therapists or English as an additional language (EAL) teachers. Some examples of specific teaching approaches include intensive interaction and the picture exchange communication system (PECS).

The case studies below show pupils learning to communicate in different ways. There are age differences and although their physical disabilities are similar, their learning needs are not the same and they require different approaches.

Joseph

Joseph is a year 1 pupil who has cerebral palsy. He vocalises in response to adults but his sounds are not yet recognisable as words. In consultation with his parents and the speech and language therapist, he has been provided with a speech-input tool which helps him communicate his needs and ideas, organise them, and make choices. A boy's voice of the same age is used to record the words and phrases that Joseph needs. He chooses them by pressing the right pad in response to requests and comments. The speech and language therapist supports staff and parents in helping Joseph to use the device and select the most appropriate words and phrases.

Maria

Maria is a year 8 pupil in a unit in a mainstream school. Her communication needs are different than Joseph's but are similar to many of the pupils in her class. Like Joseph, she needs support to organise how she communicates. One of her targets in her individual education plan (IEP) is to organise her speaking and writing to produce clear descriptions and evaluations.

In science, the group are freezing and thawing various foods. Pupils have to identify and describe changes and record their findings. Maria is learning to describe the process in the correct order, identify changes and work with others to decide which foods are likely to freeze successfully. She needs extra help to order her thoughts in a logical way. Staff help her by the use of questions, prompts, examples, symbols and pictures, and by clustering ideas together.

Opportunities for developing the key skill of communication can be provided across the curriculum as well as through English sessions and classes which focus on literacy. Further details are given in the accompanying English subject material.

Application of number

The key skill of application of number includes learning basic mathematical skills and using them in practical situations. Skills include:

• exploring and manipulating objects, which helps pupils understand and apply the idea of object permanence
• recognising, predicting and interpreting patterns and routines, for example, sequencing activities throughout the day, copying a drumbeat, responding to 'stop/go' in drama or PE
• matching, sorting, grouping, comparing and classifying activities, for example, organising money to buy an item at a checkout
• collecting, recording, interpreting and presenting data, for example, measuring the growth of a sunflower or carrying out a survey which may relate to house types, eye colour, plans to make a child's toy or favourite sandwich fillings
• being able to understand the use of mathematical language to solve practical problems, for example, arranging chairs for assembly, laying the table, catching the correct bus, using a travel timetable.

A local survey

As part of a key stage 1 geography curriculum unit, 'Investigating the quality of the local environment', pupils carry out a survey to find out how many and what type of vehicles pass the school in a given period. They talk about what type of vehicles they expect to see, and the teacher has prepared a grid for each pupil with pictures of cars, lorries, buses, bicycles and pedestrians in each square. As each vehicle passes, the pupils tick off the right picture on their grid. When they return to the class, the pupils cut out the squares they have ticked and make them into a simple bar chart. The pupils have to count the total for each type of vehicle and talk about the most and least frequent. Individual pupil targets are included in the planning of this geography activity as many of the skills involved link closely with numeracy. Razia's target is to count objects to three. She is asked to count how many buses pass the school, as these are infrequent. Jacob, Andrew and Bethany are learning to count to higher numbers. They are asked to count more frequent vehicles. On returning to the classroom, they continue to practise the skills by counting the total for each type of transport.

The key skill of application of number can be developed through mathematics sessions and classes that focus on number, as well as through pupils' use of number skills across the curriculum. Further details are given in the mathematics subject material.

Information technology

The key skill of information technology involves the use and application of ICT for a range of purposes, such as:

• engaging with a range of stimuli, for example, tracking images across a computer screen or listening to pre-recorded sound effects
• working with computer-generated models, for example, choosing from two options to complete an on-screen pattern
• affecting the environment, for example, using a switch to start music, to attract the attention of others or to start a dialogue
• promoting independence, for example, using a joystick to steer a powered wheelchair around the school
• enabling and improving communication, for example, taking photographs to improve presentation, using a speech output device to show choice or using e-mail
• a source of information, for example, using television, e-mail, the internet or CD-ROMs.

Linking to Europe

A mixed ability class of key stage 4 pupils with learning difficulties is working on a European Links project with a similar class of pupils in Germany. Several pupils, as part of the targets identified in their IEPs, are learning to use ICT as a source of information and communication. With support, the pupils use video links and e-mail to plan a visit to each other's schools. After the visits they continue the links for leisure, and work to maintain friendships and good communications. Their follow-up work includes sending video clips of their visits, scanning photographs and producing letters.

The key skill of information technology can be developed through ICT sessions and by pupils' use of ICT across the curriculum. Further details are given in the ICT subject material.

Working with others

The key skill of working with others includes:

• developing social skills, for example, awareness and/or tolerance of others, empathy and awareness of the feelings and perspectives of others, turn-taking, sharing, getting a balance between listening and responding, negotiating and supporting
• gaining, maintaining or directing the attention of others, for example, vocalising or signing to ask to join in a group activity
• adopting and accepting different roles appropriate to the setting, for example, group leader, recorder or reporter
• recognising the rules and conventions of different groups in formal and informal settings according to the size of the group, for example, parties, playground games, one-to-one conversations or work experience
• recognising a common purpose, for example, working together to create a scene in drama.

Planning a public performance

As part of a term's project, a mixed-ability class of year 8 pupils have been role-playing a favourite story. After performing it in assembly with great success, the pupils decide to give a public performance to parents to raise money for school funds. They record the tasks related to planning and performing the play. Supported by members of staff, they discuss their personal strengths, delegate responsibilities and set about the tasks. Using a computer, one group makes the posters to advertise the show. Danny, a pupil whose learning difficulties are profound and whose movements are limited, presses the switch to activate the printer. He is developing his ICT skills and his friends guide his hand when necessary. Another group of pupils discuss refreshments. They ask staff and pupils what food and drink they like, list what they will need to buy, calculate the costs and shop at the local cash and carry. The show is well attended and a great success. The pupils decide to do another performance at a local day centre for the elderly.

The National Curriculum emphasises that all subjects, including PSHE and citizenship, provide opportunities for pupils to cooperate and work effectively with others in formal and informal settings, to appreciate the experience of others, to consider different perspectives and to benefit from what others think, say and do.

Improving own learning and performance

The key skill of improving own learning and performance helps pupils:

• recognise why a task is carried out and what it involves, for example, joining in with spreading and cutting activities in the kitchen on the understanding that this will lead to the preparation of a snack
• recognise the completion of a task, for example, following a sequence of symbols as a way to achieve an agreed outcome in the workplace
• communicate preferences and choices, for example, in working styles or curriculum areas
• give reasons for individual preferences, for example, a liking for a certain subject because it means working with a group of friends
• recognise personal achievements, for example, knowing that increased confidence in one area of the curriculum can lead to increased enjoyment
• recognise difficulties experienced, for example, in using a tin opener, talking to unfamiliar adults or asking for help
• identify and evaluate strengths and weaknesses, for example, 'I'm good at...' and 'I need help with...'
• learn from mistakes, for example, remembering to use facial expressions to guide a member of support staff in pacing feeding at lunch times
• set targets, for example, responding to the prompt, 'What can I work on next?'
• develop attention and concentration, progressing from external control to self-monitoring and the ability to switch attention between tasks.

All subjects, including PSHE and careers education, provide opportunities for pupils to review their work and discuss ways to improve their learning and performance.

Problem solving

The key skill of problem solving has strong links with thinking skills. For pupils to become independent they need to solve problems by using knowledge, memory and thinking skills. For pupils with learning difficulties to have more effective and independent thinking, staff can plan ways for them to take part in problem-solving activities that motivate, challenge and stimulate attention. Early problem solving requires an understanding of cause and effect, for example, pushing away an unwanted object, removing a cloth from a favourite toy, using an adult to obtain an object. The key skill of problem solving includes:

perception:
- recognising opportunities, for example, taking part in group attempts to solve problems
- recognising and identifying problems, for example, a favourite toy out of reach, a missing bus pass before a journey, being in an uncomfortable position

thinking:
- breaking down a problem into elements, for example, a meal which involves buying food, then cooking and serving the food and clearing away
- thinking through the relevant features of a problem, for example, what to do when faced with an overflowing sink
- planning ways to solve a problem, for example, talking to other pupils about previous solutions to similar difficulties

action:
- remembering how to solve a problem, for example, using strategies such as rehearsal, visualisation or a symbol script

evaluation
- evaluating how a plan worked, for example, honestly assessing the value of a contribution after a problem-solving attempt
- recognising when existing plans and strategies need changes, for example, stopping to think and talk with other pupils before starting to act.

How do we keep the classroom safe and tidy?

Members of the class are learning about their responsibilities for keeping the classroom a safe and tidy place. This involves problem solving. Three pupils begin work with a teaching assistant, looking at a photograph which shows a 'before' situation and an 'after' when they have made some minor alterations. By pointing to different parts of the photograph and by using a topic-based symbol board, they find the next problem to be solved. They work together using the symbol board to order the tasks. After a role play, they evaluate their suggestions and make changes where necessary.

All subjects give pupils opportunities to respond to the challenge of problems and to plan, test, modify and review the process to achieve particular outcomes.